Hypocarbia – Causes, Symptoms, Treatment

Hypocarbia, also known as hypocapnia, is a decrease in alveolar and blood carbon dioxide (CO2) levels below the normal reference range of 35 mmHg. CO2 is a metabolic product of the many cellular processes within the body involved in the processing of lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins. The primary organ systems responsible for regulating CO2 homeostasis… Continue reading Hypocarbia – Causes, Symptoms, Treatment

How Much Water Content in the Body

How Much Water Content in the Body/The fluids of the various tissues of the human body are divided into fluid compartments. Fluid compartments are generally used to compare the position and characteristics of fluid in relation to the fluid within other compartments. While fluid compartments may share some characteristics with the divisions defined by the… Continue reading How Much Water Content in the Body

End-Stage Renal Disease – Causes, Symptoms, Treatment

End-stage renal disease (ESRD) development of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and its progression to this terminal disease remains a significant source of reduced quality of life and significant premature mortality. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a debilitating disease, and standards of medical care involve aggressive monitoring for signs of disease progression and early referral to… Continue reading End-Stage Renal Disease – Causes, Symptoms, Treatment

Cholesterol Metabolism – Mechanism, Functions

Cholesterol Metabolism/Cholesterol is an essential lipid for mammalian cells and its homeostasis is tightly regulated. Disturbance of cellular cholesterol homeostasis is linked to atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases. A central role in the sensing and regulation of cholesterol homeostasis is attributed to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). This organelle harbors inactive transcription factors, which sense ER cholesterol… Continue reading Cholesterol Metabolism – Mechanism, Functions

Small Bowel Cancer – Causes, Symptoms, Treatment

Small Bowel Cancer encompasses a series of malignant lesions that may be identified throughout the small intestine (SI). The small bowel lies between the stomach and the large intestine (LI/Colon) and is encompassed by three different sections, the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum to the level of the ileocecal valve which provides the terminal transition point… Continue reading Small Bowel Cancer – Causes, Symptoms, Treatment

Tests of The Shoulder Joints and Physical Examination

Tests of The Shoulder Joints and Physical Examination  (PETS) are clinical examination maneuvers designed to aid the assessment of shoulder complaints. Despite more than 180 PETS described in the literature, evidence of their validity and usefulness in diagnosing the shoulder is questioned. The complex structure of the shoulder, with its variable pathological conditions of rotator… Continue reading Tests of The Shoulder Joints and Physical Examination

Systolic Hypertension – Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment

Systolic hypertension is the predominant form of hypertension in the elderly population. Traditionally it has been defined as systolic blood pressure (SBP) above 140 mmHg with diastolic blood pressure (DBP) of less than 90 mmHg. It is estimated that 15 percent of people 60 years old and above have isolated systolic hypertension. Per the 2017… Continue reading Systolic Hypertension – Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment